Concept:Newly independent African states lacked the trained manpower and experienced leaders needed to run stable institutions.
Explanation:Colonial rule did not prepare enough Africans for senior administrative and political roles.
At independence, many countries therefore faced a critical shortage of skilled civil servants and seasoned politicians.
This shortage made it difficult to build trustworthy bureaucracies, uphold the rule of law, and manage national development.
Weak institutions also became more vulnerable to corruption, nepotism, and political instability.
In contrast, capable personnel and strong leadership would have supported the growth of effective institutions.
Thus, the absence of experienced administrators and leaders remains the major aggravating factor.
Answer:D. A lack of experienced administrative personnel and leadership.